tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-71615753538111585142024-02-07T02:24:35.378-08:00Vance Holmes Linguistics WikiVance Holmeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09262207340508517379noreply@blogger.comBlogger14125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7161575353811158514.post-78394560785919666732011-09-02T16:19:00.003-07:002011-11-04T17:37:30.436-07:0001. Language & Society<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<i>An Introduction to Sociolinguistics</i><br />
by <a href="http://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/staff/janet-holmes.aspx"><b>Janet Holmes</b></a></div>
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<b>What do sociolinguists study?</b><br />
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Sociolinguistics is a term that refers to the study of the relationship between language and society. Sociolinguists also study how language is used in multilingual speech communities. <br />
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Dr. Clamons:<br />
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We look at English and other languages to explore how we talk both similarly and differently with and about one another, in order to investigate how language variation correlates with power and status, class, network, race and ethnic group affiliation, religion, personality, gender, sexuality, and disability. </blockquote>
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<b>What aspects of language are Sociolinguists interested in?</b><br />
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Sociolinguists
are interested in explaining why people speak differently in different
social contexts. They are concerned with the way people signal aspects
of their social identity through language. Sociolinguists study the
effect of social factors -- such as social distance, social status, age,
gender and class -- on language varieties (dialects, registers, genres,
etc). Sociolinguists are also concerned with identifying the social
functions of language and the ways it is used to convey social meaning.<br />
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<a href="http://www.unc.edu/%7Egerfen/Ling30Sp2002/sociolinguistics.html"><span style="font-size: large;"><b>Sociolinguistics </b></span></a></div>
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Language can be viewed as a formal system that can be profitably studied independently from the people who use it. This type of approach is often referred to in the field as the study of "formal" linguistics. However . . . if we can gain insight into how language works by studying its formal grammatical properties, we must also realize that language, as a "thing" to be studied, is necessarily a kind of simplification, because language isn't a "thing" external to human beings, but rather, something that makes up a part of who we are. Language must also be profitably studied in its social context. In so doing, we learn both about language and about ourselves, the people who use it, live with it, and live in it. <span style="font-size: small;"><b><a href="http://www.unc.edu/%7Egerfen/Ling30Sp2002/sociolinguistics.html"><b>(www.unc.edu)</b></a></b></span></div>
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<b> <span style="color: #b45f06;">video explaining some subtleties of the </span></b></div>
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<b style="color: #b45f06;">New Zealand dialect and "NZ lingo and phrases"</b></div>
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<b style="color: red;"><span style="color: #b45f06;">video from the Regional Dialect Meme: New Zealand</span> </b></div>
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Languages provide a variety of ways of saying the same thing. <b style="color: red;">Linguistic variation</b> can provide social information for analysis.<br />
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<b style="color: black;">Areas of variation</b> areas include <b style="color: red;">vocabulary</b>, <b><span style="color: red;">sound</span></b>, pronunciation,word-structure (<b><span style="color: red;">morphology</span></b>) and <span style="color: black;">grammar </span>(<b><span style="color: red;">syntax</span></b>). These provide linguistic styles for use in various social contexts. Choices may involve different dialects or quite different languages.<br />
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A <b style="color: red;">variety <span style="color: black;">or</span> </b><b><span style="color: red;">code </span></b>is a set of linguistic forms used under specific social circumstances (<b><span style="color: red;">domains</span></b>).<br />
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A domain of language involves typical interactions between typical participants in typical settings about a typical topic. Examples of these domains are <b>family, friendship, religion, education </b>and <b>employment. </b>Using the language of one domain that is typically associated with another is sometimes known as "leakage." <br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhV-qJmB8fCI8_SgYkdA4Y3dwqv5DeHABSrjObzzIT2Lznld_u9wWKB0-Zm7MfjkCmrQ29mbLfTSo89bkrNxiMtz1526AMYD7LPbf7tu1JiqrYkRv_rDEy9cxT9sfDt12EEchh4ilaSbuZn/s1600/lih.gif" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhV-qJmB8fCI8_SgYkdA4Y3dwqv5DeHABSrjObzzIT2Lznld_u9wWKB0-Zm7MfjkCmrQ29mbLfTSo89bkrNxiMtz1526AMYD7LPbf7tu1JiqrYkRv_rDEy9cxT9sfDt12EEchh4ilaSbuZn/s1600/lih.gif" /></a></div>
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The reasons for the choices involve social considerations: <b>participants</b>, <b>social settings</b> and <b>topic </b>(or purpose) of interaction. There are four dimensions for analysis which relate to these social factors:<br />
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<ul>
<li>Social Distance scale [relates to participant]</li>
<li>Status scale [relates to participant]</li>
<li>Formality scale [relates to setting]</li>
<li>Functional scale [relates to purpose]</li>
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There are two basic function scales: Referential (informational) and Affective (emotional)<br />
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Diglossia</span> </b><span style="color: black;">-- refers to communities in which two languages or language varieties are used, with one being a high variety for formal situations and prestige, and one a low variety for informal situations (everyday conversation).</span><b> </b><span style="color: black;">Diglossia is a characteristic of speech communities. Individuals may be </span><b style="color: black;">bilingual</b><span style="color: black;"> -- societies or communities are <b>diglossic</b>.</span><br />
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In the narrow or 'classic' sense, <b>diglossia </b>is a stable situation that has three factors:<br />
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<li>Two distinct varieties of the same language are used in the community, with one regarded as high (H) variety and the other as low (L) variety. <br /><br /> </li>
<li>Each variety is used for quite distinct functions; H & L complement each other. </li>
<li>No one uses the H variety in everyday conversation.</li>
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Diglossia, in a broader sense, gives most weight to criterion #2, the complementary functions of two codes in a community.<br />
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<b style="color: red;">Polyglossia </b>-- the use of many codes for many purposes<br />
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<b>Displacement </b>may happen between varieties. </div>
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Code Switching or Code Mixing<br />
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In the Given Names Study, University of Minnesota researchers used a simple, stressed and unstressed syllable categorization system for an analysis of names from 1987-1997 sociolinguistics class lists. Using this system, the stress pattern for my given name, Vance Cameron, is “s + sww.” This represents an unusual pattern, observed in about 1% of females and 3% of males. However, this pattern is in line with the study's finding that, among males -- very few were given names beginning with a weak syllable.<br />
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The name Vance is of English origin and the meaning of Vance is "marsh dweller."<br />
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The name Holmes is of English origin and the meaning of Holmes is "from the river island."<br />
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The name Cameron is of Scottish origin and the meaning of Cameron is "crooked nose."It is also of English origin, where it means "crooked nose."<br />
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<br />Vance Holmeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09262207340508517379noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7161575353811158514.post-31977407183424701742011-09-02T16:19:00.001-07:002011-09-16T23:32:41.654-07:0002. Multilingual Communities<br />
<b><span style="color: purple; font-size: large;">disglossia:</span></b><br />
characteristic of speech communities -- rather than individuals. Therefore, there is a range of <b style="color: red;">potential relationships between disglossia and bilingualism</b>.<br />
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<b> <span style="color: white;"> </span><span style="background-color: #6aa84f;"><span style="color: white;">disglossia</span> </span></b><br />
<b> <span style="font-size: large;">+</span></b><b> </b> <span style="font-size: large;">-</span><b><span style="font-size: large;"> </span></b><br />
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<b><span style="background-color: #6aa84f;"> bilingualism</span>.</b></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b>+</b></span> 1. both disglossia and bilingualism 2. bilingualism without disglossia <br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>-</b></span> 3. disglossia without bilingualism 4. neither disglossia nor bilingualism<br />
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<b><span style="color: red;">metaphorical switching</span></b> (also known as 'code-switching') rapid switching between two linguistic systems, including sounds, grammar and vocabulary<br />
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<b><span style="color: red;">lexical borrowing</span></b> -- single word switches triggered mainly by lack of vocabulary<br />
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<b>Some sociolinguists believe there are universal rules . . .</b><br />
<ul>
<li><b><span style="color: red;">linguistic constraints</span> </b>-- very general rules for code-switching which
apply to all switching behavior regardless of the codes or varieties
involved</li>
<li><b><span style="color: red;">equivalence constraint</span></b> -- a switching rule where the grammars of both languages match each other</li>
<li><b><span style="color: red;">matrix language frame (MLF)</span></b> -- the first language that imposes structural constraints on code-switched utterances</li>
<li> <b><span style="color: red;">embedded language</span></b> -- the second language which supplies some content words</li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="color: red;">intra-sentential switching</span></b> (within sentences) and <b><span style="color: red;">inter-sentential switching</span></b> (at sentence boundaries)<br />
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<span style="color: purple; font-size: large;"><b>Domain:</b></span><br />
a grouping together of recurring situation types in such a way that one of the languages or varieties in a repertoire, as opposed to others, normally occurs in that class of situations. And members of the speech community judge that the use of that variety and not the others is appropriate to that domain<br />
<b><br />Different types of domains can be identified:</b><br />
<ul>
<li>family/home</li>
<li>education</li>
<li>official</li>
<li>religion</li>
<li>intimate </li>
<li>Employment </li>
<li>Friendship, Etc.</li>
</ul>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg_GQrL2Xs6alF5hivlhH37J8fb_iMp15Yx-3_bpAa1FZElkCPIVC-tGf1qvd1CMgFrE6sK3IN59CAfhKgbogH7qWje-CjPQxlCUVYW6KcuRMtnqgEfKuGKfPBKP0hqn06aDYBQmIfJDMt-/s1600/mambila.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="263" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg_GQrL2Xs6alF5hivlhH37J8fb_iMp15Yx-3_bpAa1FZElkCPIVC-tGf1qvd1CMgFrE6sK3IN59CAfhKgbogH7qWje-CjPQxlCUVYW6KcuRMtnqgEfKuGKfPBKP0hqn06aDYBQmIfJDMt-/s320/mambila.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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Functional domains <br />
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Different languages in a multilingual community will typically be used in different domains. For instance, in the <b style="color: red;">Mambila region of Cameroon</b>, French is used in the domain of education and official business, and the local variety of Mambila is the language of the home and of intimacy. <br />
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<b style="color: purple;">Interview of Marie, a 16 year old young lady in Bafoussam, Cameroon. </b></div>
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<b style="color: black;">CamFranglais</b> </div>
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Cameroon is a country divided by its colonial past. Once ruled by the United Kingdom, people in the north speak English. In the south, previously administered by France, most speak French. The country is striving towards bilingualism in a bid to promote national unity but the road is hard. The young people however have found a way -- speaking, and singing, both at the same time in a chaotic mix known as CamFranglais or francanglais.<br />
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<b style="color: blue;">Words of Life Mambila People<br />Language Movie Trailer</b><br />
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Other names for this language are:<br />
<b>Bang; Bea; Ble; Juli; Lagubi; Mambere; Mambila, </b><br />
<b>Cameroon; Mambilla; Nor; Tagbo; Tongbo; Torbi</b><br />
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Instability of language use in different domains reflects the general instability of the linguistic situation<br />
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<b>Language as a property of the individual:</b><br />
Every individual has his or her network of relationships which may involve different linguistic relationships.<br />
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<b>Language contact and <span style="color: #38761d;">multilingualism</span></b><br />
<ul>
<li>situations of language endangerment involve two (and often more) languages in contact (a multilingual situation)</li>
<li>this multilingual situation may ultimately lead to endangerment, language shift and the extinction of one or more of the languages</li>
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<b>Multilingualism also varies across social groups</b><br />
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<li>different groups show different patterns of language choice and use in different circumstances and for different occasions</li>
<li>groups may be relatively more or less homogeneous in their linguistic repertoires and patterns of linguistic behavior</li>
</ul>
Vance Holmeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09262207340508517379noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7161575353811158514.post-38697265474424011282011-09-02T16:18:00.001-07:002011-09-16T23:39:04.845-07:0003. Language Maintenance and Shift<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiXAFdy3o8DSRR6sbO54-5ApKPJ2I63cNGyNp0rJXgxIe54QjeOljwb58h8wNwO-9qHukc-xR0vEPKcRqGuouRPK7gvrxyKpTUFRdvfCSQE-g1_-V_gOSeE1RqW5TW3sqfarqLVxVoxgXoL/s1600/fistbmp02.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiXAFdy3o8DSRR6sbO54-5ApKPJ2I63cNGyNp0rJXgxIe54QjeOljwb58h8wNwO-9qHukc-xR0vEPKcRqGuouRPK7gvrxyKpTUFRdvfCSQE-g1_-V_gOSeE1RqW5TW3sqfarqLVxVoxgXoL/s1600/fistbmp02.jpg" /></a></div>
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<b>The Obama fist-bump heard 'round the world</b>.</div>
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When a language dies, the cultural knowledge embodied within it also dies. In this sense, a language death represents the death of a world view.</div>
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<div style="text-align: left;">
Colorful idioms and idiomatic associations -- with their attendant cultural context and historic association -- die when a language becomes extinct. Idioms provide linguistic connections to many important social elements, including:<br />
</div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Historic people, places and events </li>
<li>Community values and tradition</li>
<li>Cultural artifacts (stories, poems, oaths, jokes)</li>
<li>Gesture (fist-bump, high-five)</li>
<li>Rhythmic and melodic representations </li>
</ul>
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</div>
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The various social pressures that affect language use can produce three very different results: language death, language shift and language maintenance.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhV-qJmB8fCI8_SgYkdA4Y3dwqv5DeHABSrjObzzIT2Lznld_u9wWKB0-Zm7MfjkCmrQ29mbLfTSo89bkrNxiMtz1526AMYD7LPbf7tu1JiqrYkRv_rDEy9cxT9sfDt12EEchh4ilaSbuZn/s1600/lih.gif" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhV-qJmB8fCI8_SgYkdA4Y3dwqv5DeHABSrjObzzIT2Lznld_u9wWKB0-Zm7MfjkCmrQ29mbLfTSo89bkrNxiMtz1526AMYD7LPbf7tu1JiqrYkRv_rDEy9cxT9sfDt12EEchh4ilaSbuZn/s1600/lih.gif" /></a><br />
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The most prestigious status for any language is that of official language, because states or countries that grant it automatically commit to using that language in all of their operations. Of the world's 6,000 to 7,000 languages, only about 100 stand as the official languages of one or more countries.<br />
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<br />
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Language shift is largely an issue related to urbanization. Languages associated with the urban milieu become more prestigious and more attractive, than "village" varieties.<br />
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<br />
<br />
There are many different social reasons for choosing a particular code or variety in a multilingual community. But what choice is there for those who speak lesser-used languages in a community where the people in power use a world language or an official language of that area? How do economic and political factors influence language choices?<br />
-- <a href="http://hmar.in/articles/language-maintenance-and-shift"><b>John Darngawn</b></a><br />
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<br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><b> Language Shift in Different Communities</b><b></b></span><br />
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<br />
<b>Migrant minorities</b><br />
<br />
The order of domains in which language shift occurs may differ for different individuals and different groups, but gradually over time the language of the wider society displaces the minority language mother tongue. There are many different social factors which can lead a community to shift from using one language for most purposes to using a different language, or from using two distinct codes in different domains, to using different varieties of just one language for their communicative needs. Migrant families provide an obvious example of this process of language shift.<br />
<br />
<b>Non-Migrant Communities</b><br />
<br />
Language shift is not always the result of migration. Political, economic and social changes can occur within a community, and this may result in linguistic changes too. In Oberwart, an Austrian town on the border of Hungary, the community has been gradually shifting from Hungarian to German for some time.<br />
<br />
<b>Factors</b><br />
<br />
Obtaining work is the most obvious economic reason for learning another language. In English dominated countries, for instance, people learn English in order to get good jobs. This results in bilingualism. Bilingualism is always a necessary precursor of language shift, although, as stable diglossic communities demonstrate, it does not always result in shift.<br />
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The second important factor, then, seems to be that the community sees no reason to take active steps to maintain their ethnic language.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1KEdT5YRom41ULgxwXDxvDt6GfU3G7q2K44LZN1186mKJF2W2ucgs9lWrteH4r-npWaI_360mVYRXGFuMEdHqk1ksHpmQa_AjKEl_4WOHSz-ut7BSnRlWRy3toSGBG5QI4gdqzD3tiqlW/s1600/dim_main_sh.jpg" imageanchor="1"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1KEdT5YRom41ULgxwXDxvDt6GfU3G7q2K44LZN1186mKJF2W2ucgs9lWrteH4r-npWaI_360mVYRXGFuMEdHqk1ksHpmQa_AjKEl_4WOHSz-ut7BSnRlWRy3toSGBG5QI4gdqzD3tiqlW/s320/dim_main_sh.jpg" width="319" /></a></div>
<div style="color: blue; text-align: center;">
<b>Dimensions for analyzing language maintenance and shift</b></div>
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<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/XFayFUiyv20?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
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This video is meant to provide a <b>sample of the Navajo language</b>. The weather report was given on February 17, 2009 at 7:30 AM in the morning. The english translation provided is a broad translation, since Navajo is such a detailed language that more is said than is translated into English.</div>
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Vance Holmeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09262207340508517379noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7161575353811158514.post-52104483717720202192011-09-02T16:17:00.005-07:002011-09-16T22:55:03.991-07:0004. Varieties - Pidgins and Creoles<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5rs8BAXWS92eK0xRmuUXqgdgW1Z_ykFVADmVWTlSrTcwtmyvpxiBGGoKYja_T2DHVElLKg1IWTsJNGKA2U_DJXLKswh-3aDarb-sQf_W2sh2b4QsS1vHaPPsiMOAidHKBgJVnde4EakzF/s1600/pidcre.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5rs8BAXWS92eK0xRmuUXqgdgW1Z_ykFVADmVWTlSrTcwtmyvpxiBGGoKYja_T2DHVElLKg1IWTsJNGKA2U_DJXLKswh-3aDarb-sQf_W2sh2b4QsS1vHaPPsiMOAidHKBgJVnde4EakzF/s1600/pidcre.jpg" /></a></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
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<br />
<span style="color: #b45f06; font-size: large;"><b>Pidgins and Creoles</b></span><br />
<br />
Notes from <a href="http://www.edu-cyberpg.com/Linguistics/explainpidgin.html"><b>Educational Cyber Playground</b></a><br />
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<b><span style="color: #b45f06;">A <span style="color: red;">pidgin </span>is a new language which develops in situations where speakers of different languages need to communicate but don't share a common language. </span></b><br />
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The vocabulary of a pidgin comes mainly from one particular language -- called the "<b style="color: red;">lexifier</b>". The early "pre-pidgin" is very restricted in use and variable in structure. But the later "stable pidgin" develops its own grammatical rules which are quite different from those of the lexifier. Once a stable pidgin has emerged, it is generally learned as a second language and used for communication among people who speak different languages.<br />
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<br />
<br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #b45f06;">When children start learning a pidgin as their first language and it becomes the mother tongue of a community, it is called a <span style="color: red;">creole</span>. </span></b><br />
<br />
Like a pidgin, a creole is a distinct language which has taken most of its vocabulary from another language, the lexifier, but has its own unique grammatical rules. Unlike a pidgin, however, a creole is not restricted in use, and is like any other language in its full range of functions. Examples are Gullah, Jamaican Creole and Hawaii Creole English.<br />
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A <b style="color: #b45f06;">pidgin </b>is a version of a language which is stripped of virtually everything except what is necessary to basic communication.<br />
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<b style="color: #b45f06;">Creole </b>is a latter-day descendant of something that began as a pidgin.<br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/O7X9AAeDCr4?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe><span class="" dir="ltr" id="eow-title" title="Hawaii Pidgin The Voice of Hawaii"> </span></div>
<h2 style="color: red; text-align: center;">
<span class="" dir="ltr" id="eow-title" title="Hawaii Pidgin The Voice of Hawaii">Hawaii Pidgin: The Voice of Hawaii
</span></h2>
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<hr color="#FF0000" width="95%" />
<br />
<div style="color: #b45f06;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>For example. . . </b></span></div>
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In a collaborative project between a Russian ballet company
and a U.S. ballet Theatre, the two companies would begin to combine
languages and form a pidgin to speak of artistic items and concepts.<br />
<br />
<hr color="#FF0000" width="95%" />
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<br />
Linguistics of Color<br />
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<b>What is Black English? What is Black?</b><br />
<br />
Janet Holmes:<br />
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A vernacular language "is an uncodified or unstandardized variety" and is acquired "in the home as a first variety." The word, vernacular, "generally refers to the most colloquial variety in a person’s linguistic repertoire." This implies that what some may call ungrammatical, slovenly slang – others may identify as an example of very active linguistic maintenance!<br />
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<hr color="#FF0000" width="95%" />
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<br />
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"It is a basic axiom of sociolinguistics that bias against a language or dialect stands in for bias against its speakers.<br />
-- <a href="http://privatewww.essex.ac.uk/%7Epatrickp/AAVE.html"><b>Dr. Peter L Patrick</b></a><br />
<br />
"The speakers of African American English have often been assumed to be
black Americans, or African Americans, and indeed most of them are. But
there are obvious problems with defining a language (or anything else)
racially . . ."<br />
-- <a href="http://privatewww.essex.ac.uk/%7Epatrickp/AAVE.html"><b>Dr. Peter L Patrick</b></a><br />
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<br />
<hr color="#FF0000" width="95%" />
<br />
<b>Role of Public Schools</b><br />
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Often due merely to
linguistic differences and communication difficulties, Black students
are harshly disciplined, unfairly suspended from classes, and wrongly
classified as "learning disabled" by their teachers.<br />
<br />
In
Minnesota, Black students are admitted to Gifted - Talented programs at
less than half the rate of Whites, and nearly three times as many are
labeled "cognitively impaired." Once given this label -- or a similar
exceptionality classification -- the Black student is far less likely to
receive the same quality of general classroom instruction other
children receive. They are tracked for failure. According to the
Minnesota Department of Education -- in 2009, Minnesota's graduation
rate for White students was 82%. For Blacks, the rate was 44%. <br />
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<b>Relationship of Dialect to Spelling Instruction</b><br />
<br />
There
is some research on the spelling performance of children who speak
so-called, "Black English" and other "minority dialects" which suggests
dialect should be considered when teaching spelling. But what we know
for certain is that cultural competence is required in the multicultural
classroom. Sometimes the problem is hearing . . . sometimes the problem
is listening!<br />
<br />
This scene from the movie, Akeelah and
the Bee -- about children of color in a spelling bee -- is a
particularly effective dramatization of these issues.<br />
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http://youtu.be/ZolebXNInrs<br />
<br />Vance Holmeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09262207340508517379noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7161575353811158514.post-236643091531907912011-09-02T16:17:00.003-07:002011-11-04T16:41:38.733-07:0005. Nation and Language Status<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgE8cHlXGDC0tUPfYxGkJl-GsikDw-RBZxqOteBjXtSfsXNDf9n_yBf6YNDxdNs2ihlaW9585owID6-0AjPXUxEUOYdlkgjLkl28d3IgX6oB6aOh4K3C-chFgHr5Wpuf0DkLi064q8XwtJ4/s1600/usa_english.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgE8cHlXGDC0tUPfYxGkJl-GsikDw-RBZxqOteBjXtSfsXNDf9n_yBf6YNDxdNs2ihlaW9585owID6-0AjPXUxEUOYdlkgjLkl28d3IgX6oB6aOh4K3C-chFgHr5Wpuf0DkLi064q8XwtJ4/s1600/usa_english.jpg" /></a></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<br />
What are implications of language policies in the lives of real people? What is the
relationship between political and economic power and language status? <br />
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<b><span style="color: #660000;">National language</span></b> defined: It is the main language of political, social and cultural practices, where people use it as a symbol of their national unity. Official language is the language used by governments for formal functions. In a monolingual community, a national language is usually also the official language, but in bilingual or multilingual communities, it may or may not be the official language. For example: English and French are <i>both </i>official languages in Canada.<br />
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<b style="color: #783f04;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: #660000;">Planning for a national official language:</span></span></b><br />
<ul>
<li>Selection: selecting the variety or code to by developed.</li>
<li>Codification: standardizing its structural or linguistic features.</li>
<li>Elaboration: extending its functions for use in new domains.</li>
<li>Securing its acceptance: acceptance by people in terms of attitude & prestige.</li>
</ul>
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<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/3rkCWxMaieY?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Nuestro Himno</b> ("Our Anthem")</span><br />
"Star Spangled Banner" performed in Spanish by </div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b>Olga Tanon, Wyclef Jean and Carlos Ponce</b></div>
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Although English is the de facto language of government in the United States, we have no de jure official language. In the past three decades, however, 28 states have passed legislation making English their official state language. The history of language and nation in the United States has fluctuated over the course of time.<br />
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<br />
<br />
The <a href="http://www.lsadc.org/info/lsa-res-rights.cfm"><b>Linguistic Society of America</b></a>'s statement on language rights holds that, at a minimum, all residents of the United States should be guaranteed seven basic linguistic rights: the right to express themselves in the language of their choice; the right to maintain their native language and pass it on to their children; the right to a qualified interpreter in government proceedings; the right to have their children educated in a manner that affirms their native language abilities while ensuring their acquisition of English; the right to conduct business in the language of their choice; the right to use their preferred language for private conversations in the workplace; and finally, the right of an opportunity to learn English.<br />
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<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: right;">
<a href="http://www.nflc.org/history"><b>The National Foreign Language Center</b></a></div>
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The National Foreign Language Center (NFLC) was founded in the mid-1980s as a direct result of an unprecedented national interest in improving foreign language and international studies education by President Carter's Commission on Language and International Studies in 1979. It was also, and more immediately, the brainchild of its founding director, Dr. Richard Lambert, a sociologist as well as foreign language and area studies expert at the University of Pennsylvania.<br />
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<div style="text-align: right;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b><a href="http://navajopeople.org/">Diné</a></b></span></div>
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This site is dedicated to keeping alive the culture, traditions, and beliefs of the Diné (Navajo People) also referred to as Navajo Indians, a name the site advises is not used or liked by the Diné People. There is also information on language, history, culture and many specific cultural subjects.<br />
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<br />
<br />
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<br />
<div style="text-align: right;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.ling.upenn.edu/%7Ejason2/papers/natlang.htm"><b>Reconciling Linguistic Diversity</b></a>:</span></div>
<div style="text-align: right;">
<b>The History and the Future of Language Policy in India</b></div>
<br />
<br />
This website is a linguistic overview of India. With over 900 million people and more than one thousand languages, India
is certainly one of the most linguistically diverse multilingual nations in the world today. Indian leaders chose Hindi as the official language of
India in the hope that it would facilitate regional communication and encourage
national unity. Aware of the many of difficulties inherent in trying to promote a single language in a multilingual environment, much planning was done. The situation offers an interesting case for the analysis of political
and social aspects of language planning and promotion.<br />
<br />
<br />Vance Holmeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09262207340508517379noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7161575353811158514.post-25458579505920025392011-09-02T16:17:00.001-07:002011-09-30T22:15:00.830-07:0006. Regional Dialects<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<div style="text-align: center;">
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<br />
<b>Dialectology</b>: Linguists studying language variation across regional areas identify life-long inhabitants and collect samples of language from them. They then plot the variant pronunciations, words, and phrases on a map, identifying where each token of a language form was spoken.<br />
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Can we tell if someone is from Iowa or Wisconsin, the south, the east coast? <br />
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Every aspect of language varies across geographical regions. <br />
<br />
(1) People in a certain area have a particular <b>accent</b>; the way that they pronounce words and phrases is peculiar to the speakers in that area. <br />
<br />
(2) The <b>lexical items</b> that speakers choose also differ from place to place. In western Pennsylvania, people who are always into other people's business are nebby, in Minnesota, they're nosy.<br />
<br />
(3) The <b>syntax</b>, the way that words are combined into phrases and sentences, also differs in different regions. In Minnesota, if the floor is dirty 'the floor needs to be washed'. In western Pennsylvania, 'the floor needs washed'.<br />
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So how do linguists determine what a dialect area is?<br />
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<br />
According to <a href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/161228/dialectology"><b>Encyclopædia Britannica</b></a>:<br />
<br />
Dialectology is the study of dialects. Variation most commonly occurs as a result of relative geographic or social isolation and may affect vocabulary, grammar, or pronunciation (accent). Dialectology as a discipline began in the 19th century with the development in western Europe of dictionaries and grammars of regional dialects. Much of the work of dialectology has consisted of gathering information about the types of variation that occur in different dialects and the construction of linguistic atlases showing patterns of distribution for a series of varying features within a language. Such work on the geographic patterns of linguistic variation is also known as <b>linguistic geography</b>.<br />
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<br />
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<br />
The further away from your area the more pronounced you find an accent. The closer you are to an area the more you can differentiate an accent locally. <br />
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When I first came to Minneapolis, I was startled to hear people say "da rainch" -- "da iron rainch" -- and "Dulut." I noticed the Northern Minnesota dialect as sharply distinct from the local Twin Cities sound. I was amazed because the Northern Minnesota dialect is oddly similar to the dialect used in my home area near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.<br />
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Now I am seeing that this may have to do with similarities in the speech of certain types of working class people, because, like "da iron rainch," Pittsburgh also has a long history of iron mining, iron works and steel mills.<br />
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<br />Vance Holmeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09262207340508517379noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7161575353811158514.post-60250972036947363352011-09-02T16:16:00.005-07:002011-11-04T16:51:48.111-07:0007. Social Dialect<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<span style="color: #b45f06; font-size: large;"><b>Social Dialect</b></span> is examining the relationship between social class, prestige factors, and language choices.<br />
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How do speakers talk differently in different social groups?<br />
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How do
speakers use language to identify themselves with a particular social
group?<br />
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<div style="color: #b45f06;">
<b>Social dialects defined:</b></div>
<br /> a variety of language that reflects social variation in language use, according to certain factors related to the social group of the speaker such as education, occupation, income level (upper-class English, middle-class English and lower-class English. For example: Standard English can be classified as a type of social English spoken by the well-educated English speakers throughout the world.<br />
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A <b>linguistic variable</b> is a single feature of speech (pronunciation, lexical, or syntactic) "which is found in the speech of some, but not all, members of a speech community; and/or is found sometimes, but not always in the speech of an individual."<br />
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<div style="color: #3d85c6;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>William Labov</b></span></div>
<b> </b> <br />
To account for <b>stylistic variation</b>, which based on speech
context, i.e., variation in the speech of an individual, William Labov
began by distinguishing <b style="color: #b45f06;">two varieties</b> of the speech of an individual: <br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjiBwVcJmYZhw4etCGHbsCNlzfMfx-BzXttd7DCXthAaT_CXaKDV0ItSumoZDDYEC2cLjQ1gvN7ydpKKop7aBDLa4P0bvukA-ScIX772hzUbesVnSD5_gEEpVgVdhvKCMbCuxZfXDBavfBW/s1600/labov.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjiBwVcJmYZhw4etCGHbsCNlzfMfx-BzXttd7DCXthAaT_CXaKDV0ItSumoZDDYEC2cLjQ1gvN7ydpKKop7aBDLa4P0bvukA-ScIX772hzUbesVnSD5_gEEpVgVdhvKCMbCuxZfXDBavfBW/s400/labov.jpg" width="288" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b>William Labov</b></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<b style="color: #3d85c6;">Vernacular speech</b> is the variety of speech used by individuals in casual social interactions with peers. It is always the variety one learns first, many speakers stay monodialectal in it all their lives, it is typically of low prestige, and there is social pressure on upwardly mobile speakers to modify their vernacular speech in favor of superposed speech.<br />
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<b><span style="color: #3d85c6;">Superposed speech</span></b> is a prestigious variety of speech used in more formal situations and when speakers are paying closer attention to their speech. It is the native variety of higher prestige groups, learned later than vernacular by lower prestige groups and therefore not learned as well so speakers will have a tendency to slip back into the vernacular when they aren't paying close attention.<br />
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<b>"Social Dialect"</b><br />
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<br />Vance Holmeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09262207340508517379noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7161575353811158514.post-11531919259956081722011-09-02T16:16:00.003-07:002011-11-04T12:50:12.227-07:0008. Gender, Age and Language<div style="color: red;">
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<b>Gender</b></div>
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<b> </b>"The nature of the relationship between gender and speech is complex, and the way gender interacts with a range of other factors needs careful examination in each speech community."<br />
-- Holmes<br />
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Women and men do not speak in exactly the same way as each other in any community. Gender differences in language are often just one aspect of more pervasive linguistic differences in the society reflecting social status or power differences. It has been claimed that women are more linguistically polite than men and that women and men emphasize different speech functions.<br />
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One of the most obvious speech differences between men and women is in
the pitch of their voices. Along with the obvious physical differences,
social and cultural factors contribute to pitch differences.<br />
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There are <b style="color: #b45f06;">gender-exclusive</b> and <b style="color: #b45f06;">gender-preferential </b>features. Gender-exclusive speech forms reflect gender-exclusive social roles.<br />
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<b>Gender and Social Class</b><br />
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The linguistic features which differ in the speech of women and men in Western communities are usually features which also distinguish the speech of people from different social classes. There is widespread evidence that men use more vernacular forms than women -- but there are exceptions to this pattern.<br />
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Signaling gender affiliation or constructing gender identity cannot be ignored as factors in their own right.<br />
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<b>Question</b>: Why don't men use more standard forms?<br />
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Men may prefer vernacular forms because they carry macho connotations of masculinity and toughness. If so, this might explain why women might NOT want to use such forms. Men may regard vernacular forms positively and value them highly, which suggests these forms have<b> <span style="color: #b45f06;">"covert prestige"</span></b> by contrast with the overt prestige of the standard forms which are cited as models of correctness.<br />
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<b>Age</b></div>
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Pitch, vocabulary, pronunciation and grammar can differentiate age groups. These differences include the use of swear words and slang.<br />
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Some research suggests that as people get older their speech becomes gradually more standard, and then later it becomes less standards and is once again characterized by vernacular forms. Generally, in the middle years, (30 - 55) people are most likely to respond to the wider society's speech norms by using fewer vernacular forms. These are the peak years of maximum societal pressure to conform<br />
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Like slang, vernacular forms act as solidarity markers; they can indicate membership of close-knit social groups.<br />
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For an innovation -- a form on the increase -- there will be low use by older people and higher use among young. For a form that is disappearing, the reverse is true.<br />
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<div style="color: #660000; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>The Social Network Model</b></span></div>
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<div style="color: #660000; text-align: justify;">
In
the studies that Labov carried out in New York, he examined the general
behavior of members a certain social classes. This allowed him to
identify how the members of certain sub-groups used language relative to
the overt prestige norms of the larger group. It did not allow him to
identify how other specific social factors related to the covert
prestige norms of an individual's unique network. Lesley Milroy wanted to
examine the relationship between certain particular social factors and
the language behavior of individuals. In order to do this, she used a
social network model.</div>
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<br />Vance Holmeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09262207340508517379noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7161575353811158514.post-44305834880692518742011-09-02T16:16:00.001-07:002011-11-04T17:01:26.539-07:0009. Ethnicity and Social Context<div style="color: orange;">
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><label id="z_l"><span class="ds_f">Imaginationality</span></label></span></div>
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<span style="color: black;">My newest invented word: “<b>Imaginationality</b>”</span></div>
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<span style="color: black;"><br />Idea for language and national identity. Imaginationality: The American Dreamers / The American Halluci-Nation</span></div>
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<span style="color: black;"><br />. . . interplay of Image and History . . . of belonging . . . of dreaming . . .</span></div>
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Considering
how deeply America has invested in the dimensions of race and
ethnicity, it is shocking to consider that these things are not real!
Human racial classifications have no basis in biology. There is no gene,
no characteristic, no trait that distinguishes the members of one
"race" or ethnic group from another.</div>
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<b>Incorporating Linguistic Signals</b></div>
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Language can be an important symbol of a people's distinct ethnicity.<br />
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Many ethnic groups use a distinctive language associated with their ethnic identity. Where a choice of language is available for communication it is often possible for an individual to signal their ethnicity by the language they choose to use. Even when a complete conversation in an ethnic language is not possible, people may use short phrases, verbal fillers or <b style="color: red;">linguistic tags</b>, which signal ethnicity.<br />
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The use of language varieties has an important symbolic function. It signals a person's ethnicity.<br />
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">African American English</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;">AAE</span></div>
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AAE is heard especially in the northern cities of the U.S. According to Holmes, AAE<b> characteristics</b> include:<br />
<ul>
<li>absence of the copula verb<i> be</i> in some social and linguistic contexts <br />(<i>"He a teacher"</i> . . . "He's a teacher") </li>
<li>use of the invariant <i>be</i> to signal recurring or repeated actions<br />(<i>"She be at school on weekdays"</i> . . . "She's always at school on weekdays")</li>
<li>frequent use of multiple negation<br />(<i>"I don't owe no money"</i> . . . "I don't owe any money")</li>
<li>frequent and extensive consonant cluster simplification<br />(<i>"This is the las time"</i> . . . "This is the last time")</li>
</ul>
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Dr. Clamons uses the term African American English. AAE has been known by other names such as African American Vernacular English (AAVE) and Black English Vernacular (BEV). I object to the phrase "Black English" and the similarly imprecise, race-based phrase -- "Ebonics." On the website, <b>African American English</b>, Dr. Peter L Patrick notes:<br />
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"The speakers of African American English have often been assumed to be black Americans, or African Americans, and indeed most of them are. But there are obvious problems with defining a language (or anything else) racially . . ."</div>
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Considering that AAE is the home language for people in urban environments who are of many different ethnic backgrounds, some have identified the dialect as <b>Inner-City English</b>.<br />
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Inner-City English </span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;">ICE</span></div>
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<b>Features of ICE</b><br />
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No speaker uses all of the features associated with ICE all the time. Some of the features are in common with Southern English while some are in common with West African languages (notably copula deletion and cluster reduction).As with other non-standard varieties of English, the features of ICE are structured and linguistically complex. <br />
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ICE and Southern English feature: "liketa." This is used to indicate “nearly.” So, "I liketa drowned" would mean “I nearly drowned.”<br />
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<b>Different Positions on ICE</b><br />
<ul>
<li>ICE is a “sloppy” form of English.<br /><br />Here,
ICE is presumed to be mere slang, but slang is temporary. ICE has a
long history. Many of the features of ICE have been maintained across
generations. <br /><br /><br />
</li>
<li>ICE is a divergent dialect of Southern English.<br /><br />Under this idea, ICE was created by the divergence from Southern
English, much like the dialects of the USs diverged from the British
English of colonial times.</li>
<li>ICE is a language variety that has origins as a
pidgin and a decreolized creole.<br /><br />The theory is: local slave populations were linguistically diverse; a
pidgin was formed; this pidgin became creolized as it became more
grammatically complex, and children acquired it as a first language;
this creole then became decreolized, making it mutually intelligible
with dialects of English. </li>
</ul>
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<div style="color: red; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: large;">The "Ebonics" Controversies</span></div>
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<b>The Ann Arbor Decision</b><br />
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It was determined that the Ann Arbor School District was in violation of Section 1703(f) of Title 20 of the United States Code. This code requires that children be given equal opportunity for participation in educational programs. The Ann Arbor School Board was required to develop a plan to instruct teachers in the recognition and instruction of speakers of Black English. The Ann Arbor decision, in part, read:<br />
<br />
“…experts indicated that
black children’s development of reading skills can be impaired by
rejection by teachers who perceive dialectal variations as errors and
indicative of an inferior linguistic system and intellectual
inferiority.” (1987)<br />
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<b>Oakland School Board</b><br />
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In 1996, the Oakland School Board passed a resolution recognizing "Black English" as a primary language. The case involved two opposing viewpoints:<br />
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<ul>
<li>Pro -- It will aid in the education of Black students, allowing them to become more proficient in standardized English, while respecting the variation of AAE. Studies have shown that African American children perform better by transition from their home languages.</li>
<li>Con -- The use of AAE in the classroom will promote segregation. "Ebonics" is just sloppy English. Black children fall behind because their backgrounds do not adequately prepare them for school, not because of their slang speech habits. No studies have shown that bilingual education programs can be extended and used help students with heavy dialects.</li>
</ul>
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In the end, government funding was denied under bilingual education programs on the grounds that AAE is not a true language.<br />
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<br />Vance Holmeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09262207340508517379noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7161575353811158514.post-52384524645206676232011-09-02T16:15:00.003-07:002011-11-03T20:48:36.886-07:0010. Mexican American Language Community<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiPFHfw8Vujzqr6Go9S1HdG7J0A0LhBvB8Zyg8YPcLVTEctdDuJ9jYvZDJQeM82vON4PUKVSx3nTjwScMYS8nyf-Zq3GXDXieodG-z0bnB_11LZGJWrunp8tiAOxy9eEWsMkUtHm89dU9Rx/s1600/mexicanmpls.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="239" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiPFHfw8Vujzqr6Go9S1HdG7J0A0LhBvB8Zyg8YPcLVTEctdDuJ9jYvZDJQeM82vON4PUKVSx3nTjwScMYS8nyf-Zq3GXDXieodG-z0bnB_11LZGJWrunp8tiAOxy9eEWsMkUtHm89dU9Rx/s320/mexicanmpls.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<div style="color: #cc0000; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-size: large;">Minnesota's <br />Mexican American Language Community</span></b></div>
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In the U.S., Spanish language use alone seems to have come to constitute a common identity of being Latino or Hispanic, despite the broadness and arbitrariness of the category. Over time, this common identity has been strengthened through struggles to gain recognition for bilingual education programs in U. S. public schools. <br />
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The 2010 U.S. Census Bureau recorded Minnesota residents self-identifying as persons of Hispanic or Latino origin as 4.7 percent of the population (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010). By far, the state’s largest specific ethnic communities within the Census Bureau’s general Latino category are people of Mexican heritage and background.<br />
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<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/52mNG1d48Qs?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span class="long-title" dir="ltr" id="eow-title" title="Francisco Jiménez on the Mexican American experience, libraries, and his book "Reaching Out"">Francisco Jiménez on the Mexican American experience, </span><span class="long-title" dir="ltr" id="eow-title" title="Francisco Jiménez on the Mexican American experience, libraries, and his book "Reaching Out""><br />libraries, and his book "Reaching Out" </span></span></h2>
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<span class="long-title" dir="ltr" id="eow-title" title="Francisco Jiménez on the Mexican American experience, libraries, and his book "Reaching Out""><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"></span></span><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;"></span></span></h2>
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<span class="long-title" dir="ltr" id="eow-title" title="Francisco Jiménez on the Mexican American experience, libraries, and his book "Reaching Out""><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;"></span></span></h2>
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<span class="long-title" dir="ltr" id="eow-title" title="Francisco Jiménez on the Mexican American experience, libraries, and his book "Reaching Out""><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;"></span></span></h2>
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<span class="long-title" dir="ltr" id="eow-title" title="Francisco Jiménez on the Mexican American experience, libraries, and his book "Reaching Out""><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;"></span></span></h2>
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<span class="long-title" dir="ltr" id="eow-title" title="Francisco Jiménez on the Mexican American experience, libraries, and his book "Reaching Out""><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"></span></span></span></h2>
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<span class="long-title" dir="ltr" id="eow-title" title="Francisco Jiménez on the Mexican American experience, libraries, and his book "Reaching Out""><b><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"> </span></span></b></span></h2>
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<b><span class="long-title" dir="ltr" id="eow-title" style="font-size: large;" title="Francisco Jiménez on the Mexican American experience, libraries, and his book "Reaching Out""><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Article</span></span><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"></span></span><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">:</span></span></span></b></h2>
<h2>
<span class="long-title" dir="ltr" id="eow-title" title="Francisco Jiménez on the Mexican American experience, libraries, and his book "Reaching Out""><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">http://adage.com/article/guest-columnists/u-s-hispanic-population-growing-abuela-s-latino-community/149331/</span></span></span></h2>
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<span class="long-title" dir="ltr" id="eow-title" title="Francisco Jiménez on the Mexican American experience, libraries, and his book "Reaching Out""></span></h2>
<a href="http://adage.com/article/guest-columnists/u-s-hispanic-population-growing-abuela-s-latino-community/149331/"><span class="long-title" dir="ltr" id="eow-title" title="Francisco Jiménez on the Mexican American experience, libraries, and his book "Reaching Out""><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: large; font-weight: normal;">U.S. Hispanic Population Is Growing, but This Isn't Your Abuela's Latino Community</span></span></span></a><h2 style="text-align: left;">
<span class="long-title" dir="ltr" id="eow-title" title="Francisco Jiménez on the Mexican American experience, libraries, and his book "Reaching Out""><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: small;"><br />The 'Bridge Generation' Has a Different Cultural DNA<br />By: Hernan Lopez Published: March 14, 2011</span></span></h2>
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<h2 style="font-weight: normal; text-align: left;">
<span class="long-title" dir="ltr" id="eow-title" title="Francisco Jiménez on the Mexican American experience, libraries, and his book "Reaching Out""><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: small;">According to these latest Census estimates, Latinos now make up 18% (50 million people) of the nation's population. To put that into perspective, the U.S. Hispanic population is more numerous than the entire population of Canada.<br /><br />However, the more telling statistics have to do with the Hispanic growth rate. Latinos and other minorities were responsible for an astonishing 85% of U.S. population growth in the past 10 years, and that growth happened well beyond Texas and Florida. In fact, the state with the fastest-growing Hispanic population is the heart of Nascar Nation, North Carolina, which also shows that Hispanics have begun to establish roots in areas of the U.S. outside the typical points of entry.</span></span></h2>
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<span class="long-title" dir="ltr" id="eow-title" title="Francisco Jiménez on the Mexican American experience, libraries, and his book "Reaching Out""><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: small;"> </span></span></h2>
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
<span class="long-title" dir="ltr" id="eow-title" title="Francisco Jiménez on the Mexican American experience, libraries, and his book "Reaching Out""><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">. . . While Hispanic population growth in the 1980s and 1990s was primarily driven by immigrants arriving to the U.S. in search of economic prosperity, today's Hispanic growth can be attributed, overwhelmingly, to the group's American-born children. They are bilingual, bicultural and increasingly influential within their multi-generational households.</span><br style="font-weight: normal;" /><br style="font-weight: normal;" /><span style="font-weight: normal;">Dubbed the "bridge generation" in a recent study by MRM Worldwide, these young, U.S.-born Latinos move comfortably between English and Spanish depending on the situation. They attend American schools and have American friends. By every method of measure, they are American. And while they still retain their Hispanic cultural identity, they have increasingly discerning tastes and a desire for new experiences.</span><br style="font-weight: normal;" /><br style="font-weight: normal;" /><span style="font-weight: normal;">Our mindset is no longer defined by language preference, age or acculturation level. It is guided by an evolved set of shared values and needs.</span></span></span></h2>
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<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/ws60X9raOVg?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
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<b>Video on Central and South American in the U.S.</b><br />
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</div>Vance Holmeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09262207340508517379noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7161575353811158514.post-80765905147917957052011-09-02T16:15:00.001-07:002011-11-03T20:58:58.733-07:0011. Language Change<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiZypVViDcLbAf2lagCoGq5aeABM_a5A2YAxoyViDl2XmA89M_IhTL1QWiXUDFNFPpGMyv0nCIAez83YgYZ5v_yCqVW5xPEB88SIoPdq0fmzk1LQ2SKxNTzD1IRV2xzMKIKlyhqR6jY_HVp/s1600/world_time.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiZypVViDcLbAf2lagCoGq5aeABM_a5A2YAxoyViDl2XmA89M_IhTL1QWiXUDFNFPpGMyv0nCIAez83YgYZ5v_yCqVW5xPEB88SIoPdq0fmzk1LQ2SKxNTzD1IRV2xzMKIKlyhqR6jY_HVp/s1600/world_time.jpg" /></a></div>
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<span style="color: red; font-size: large;">What aspects of language change over time?</span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #351c75; font-size: small;">Sociolinguists help us in our understanding of the relationship between language change and historical events, language contact, and social affiliation.</span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></b><br />
<b><span style="color: #38761d; font-size: small;">We know that all aspects of language change over time: pronunciation, lexicon, syntax, and pragmatics.</span></b><br />
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<div style="text-align: center;">
<b>Notes on research from<br /><a href="http://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/linguistics/change.jsp">Nicole Mahoney</a><br />and <a href="http://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/linguistics/change.jsp">The National Science Foundation</a></b></div>
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<span style="color: #b45f06; font-size: large;"><b>Why Languages Change</b></span></div>
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Languages change for a variety of reasons. Large-scale shifts often occur in response to social, economic and political pressures. History records many examples of language change fueled by invasions, colonization and migration. Frequently, the needs of speakers drive language change. New technologies, industries, products and experiences simply require new words. <br />
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<span style="color: #38761d; font-size: large;"><b>Types of Change</b></span></div>
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Three main aspects of language change over time: vocabulary, sentence structure and pronunciations. Vocabulary can change quickly as new words are borrowed from other languages, or as words get combined or shortened. The lexicon is "the most volatile part of a language." Sentence structure — the order of words in a sentence — changes more slowly. <br />
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<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: #cc0000; font-size: large;"><b>Agents of Change</b></span></div>
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Before a language can change, speakers must adopt new words, sentence structures and sounds, spread them through the community and transmit them to the next generation. According to many linguists — including the National Science Foundation's David Lightfoot — children serve as agents for language change when, "in the process of learning the language of previous generations, they internalize it differently and propagate a different variation of that language."<br />
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<ul>
<li>Can we trace the evolutionary path of a language?<br /> </li>
<li>How do language changes spread through communities?<br /> </li>
<li>How do historical circumstances influence language change?</li>
</ul>
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<ul>
<li>What is the relationship between language learning and change?</li>
</ul>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">What is an Anti-Language?</span></b></div>
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<a href="http://www.usingenglish.com/glossary/antilanguage.html">According to UsingEnglish.com:</a></div>
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<b>Anti-language</b>s, a term
created by the
linguist MAK Halliday, are a way of communicating within a language that
excludes outsiders. An anti-language uses the same grammar and words as
the main speech community, but uses them in a different way so that
they can only be understood by insiders."</div>
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<a href="http://www.wordspy.com/words/antilanguage.asp">From WordSpy.com</a>:</div>
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antilanguage<br />
n. A collection of words and phrases used to exclude outsiders from a particular group and to disguise the group's activities.<br />
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Example Citation:<br />
"Mobspeak is a language that grows out of secrecy, and who can be more
secret than the Mafia? The anti-social nature of the Mob is the perfect
breeding ground for an 'Antilanguage'."<br />
—Bryan McLucas, "Mobspeak: The Language of the Mafia" </div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;">Cockney Rhyming Slang</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhnsUFK9IScT1npygzsB5C5fjP02U4hs4rdSJtd4LldZBRR0oLNAtoC0WeyOPR0znpNnusrqxWetL4gjtb7euN3cHJbO5MbVxI1mXFOTvZt5gHd4LnXPnuS8rbqiW_fWrLuaGcMaLKqcRI8/s1600/delboy.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhnsUFK9IScT1npygzsB5C5fjP02U4hs4rdSJtd4LldZBRR0oLNAtoC0WeyOPR0znpNnusrqxWetL4gjtb7euN3cHJbO5MbVxI1mXFOTvZt5gHd4LnXPnuS8rbqiW_fWrLuaGcMaLKqcRI8/s1600/delboy.jpg" /></a></div>
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Cockney Rhyming Slang (CRS) is not slang and it does not rhyme. It is a full and living language with a long history.<br />
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CRS
is generally thought to have originated in the mid-19th century in
the East End of London. The seemingly spontaneous nonsense actually
masks an ingenious linguistic invention. Over time, CRS has often been
employed as a way of artfully dodging
vulgarities and taboo subjects in public discourse through the
substituting of code words with embedded meanings and
inner-relationships.<br />
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CRS construction loosely involves taking a commonly used word (e.g., "Here comes my <i>wife</i>."),
replacing it with a two-part rhyming phrase (trouble and strife).
Often, the substitution is made using only the first part -- the
non-rhyming part of the phrase. ("Here comes my trouble.") This process
has a technical name: <b>hemiteleia</b>. For an outsider listening in, the meanings of the phrases are impossible to discern.<br />
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<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<div style="color: #b45f06;">
"Got
to my mickey, found me way up the apples, put on me whistle and the
bloody dog went. It was me trouble telling me to fetch the teapots."</div>
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Translation:<br />
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<span style="color: #e69138;"><span style="color: #990000;">"Got
to my house (mickey mouse), found my way up the stairs (apples and
pears), put on my suit (whistle and flute) when the phone (dog and bone)
rang. It was my wife (trouble and strife) telling me to get the kids
(teapot lids)."</span> </span></blockquote>
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<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<div style="color: #b45f06;">
"'Allo
me old china - wot say we pop round the Jack. I'll stand you a pig and
you can rabbit on about your teapots. We can 'ave some loop and tommy
and be off before the dickory hits twelve."</div>
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Translation:<br />
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<div style="color: #cc0000;">
"Hello
my old mate (china plate) - what do you say we pop around to the bar
(Jack Tar). I'll buy you a beer (pig's ear) and you can talk (rabbit and
pork) about your kids (teapot lids). We can have some soup (loop de
loop) and supper (Tommy Tucker) and be gone before the clock (hickory
dickory dock) strikes twelve."</div>
</blockquote>
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Importantly,
there is an inner-logic and a shared sensibility that allows for
improvisation. This is mostly a matter of cultural knowledge, but a wry
sense of humor is clearly seen as a driving force upon a sampling of
some of the more classic substitutions.<br />
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Near and Far = car<br />
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dog and bone = telephone<br />
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clever mike = bike<br />
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Tony Blair = chair<br />
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fat boy slim = gym<br />
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brixton riot = diet<br />
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bucket and pail = jail<br />
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Calvin klein = fine<br />
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finger and thumb = rum<br />
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Basin of gravy = baby<br />
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half inch = pinch<br />
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Allan Border = out of order<br />
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bees and honey = money<br />
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dancing fleas = keys<br />
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hit and miss = kiss<br />
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airs and graces = faces<br />
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Band of hope = soap<br />
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jack jones = alone<br />
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Cat and mouse = house<br />
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April showers = flowers<br />
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danny larue = clue<br />
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Laugh and a Joke = Smoke<br />
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Britney Spears = beers<br />
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Pocket Davy Crockett<br />
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A la Mode = code<br />
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<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Cockney Rhyming Slang (CSR) Links</b></span></div>
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<div style="text-align: center;">
<b><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1862429072">CRS dictionary, blog, links and info</a></b></div>
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<a href="http://www.cockneyrhymingslang.co.uk/">http://www.cockneyrhymingslang.co.uk/</a></div>
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<div style="text-align: center;">
<b><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1862429067">English to CRS Translator</a></b></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<a href="http://www.aldertons.com/english-.htm">http://www.aldertons.com/english-.htm</a></div>
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<div style="text-align: center;">
<a href="http://www.superpan.org/humour/cockney.html"><b>Excellent CRS dictionary and links to humor</b><br />http://www.superpan.org/humour/cockney.html</a></div>
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<div style="text-align: center;">
<a href="http://www.phespirit.info/cockney/english_to_slang.htm#T"><b>Simple, clear CRS glossary</b><br />http://www.phespirit.info/cockney/english_to_slang.htm#T</a></div>
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<br />
<span class="" dir="ltr" id="eow-title" title="How To Do A Cockney Accent"><b style="color: red;"><span style="font-size: small;">How To Do A Cockney Accent</span></b>
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<div style="color: #0b5394; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>The Only Way Is Essex</b></span></div>
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<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/jS4CzcoUMWo?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
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<br />
REALITY show: <span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.thesun.co.uk/sol/homepage/features/3885529/TOWIEs-dialect-continues-a-lengthy-linguistic-tradition.html"><b>The Only Way Is Essex</b></a></span><br />
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<div style="text-align: left;">
These intriguing comments were located at the <a href="http://www.thesun.co.uk/sol/homepage/features/3885529/TOWIEs-dialect-continues-a-lengthy-linguistic-tradition.html"><b>The Sun</b></a>.The
article is written by <b>Paul Kerswill</b>, Professor of Sociolinguistics at
Lancaster University. He notes a mirror of the New York plural YOUS.</div>
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<blockquote class="tr_bq">
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
"For me, as someone fascinated by linguistics, what is
most interesting, though, is the way they speak. For example, when
Billi is talking to Kirk and his mate Joey she makes "you" plural by
sticking an "s" on the end so it sounds like 'yous'. . . . Billi and
Joey are also fond of the word 'was' where standard English would be
'were'. Are they just ignorant? No, they're following the old Cockney
dialect of their forebears."</div>
</blockquote>
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<br />Vance Holmeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09262207340508517379noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7161575353811158514.post-8974616111997041162011-09-02T16:11:00.003-07:002011-12-10T20:01:16.159-08:0012. Style, Context, and Register<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj2AhW_dwNiI3bew5Iqoe2Xv56imNbeamltZnCPs3FyEkl7pQKC98m9rq2dvWcC4oLA5WjOubtdn9deKKHVj4OsoxUpinGzIsw3quKxSm-u9P1enSW3w6Ib00azU-37ty5hwYBewwCvh7MA/s1600/people_speak1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="282" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj2AhW_dwNiI3bew5Iqoe2Xv56imNbeamltZnCPs3FyEkl7pQKC98m9rq2dvWcC4oLA5WjOubtdn9deKKHVj4OsoxUpinGzIsw3quKxSm-u9P1enSW3w6Ib00azU-37ty5hwYBewwCvh7MA/s400/people_speak1.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<b>Identify how language variation correlates with social situations</b></div>
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People’s styles of speech and written communication reflect and express not only aspects of their identity such as their ethnicity, age, gender, and social background -- they also indicate the contexts in which language is being used. Formality and status are at play here.<br />
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<b>What aspects of language vary across speakers, setting, attitude, and other contextual factors?</b></div>
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Language varies according to use and users and according to where it is used and to whom, as well as according to who is using it. The addresses and the context affect our choice of code or variety, whether language, dialect or style.<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Accommodation Theory</span></div>
<b><br />Speech converges</b>: each person's speech converges towards the speech of the person they are talking to. It tends to happen when the speakers like one another, or where one speaker has a vested interest in pleasing the other or putting them at ease.<br />
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<b>Speech diverges</b>: deliberately choosing a different language style not used by one's addressee, it tends to happen when a person wants to show his cultural distinctiveness, social status, ethnic identity, etc.<br />
Hypercorrection: it is the exaggeration of some lower class speakers in imitating middle class standard speech. For example: the use of 'I' rather than 'me' in constructions such as 'between you and I'.<br />
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<b>Register</b>: occupational style using specialized or technical jargon, it describes the language of groups of people with common interests or jobs, or the language used in situations associated with such groups, such as the language of doctors, engineers, journals, legalese, etc.<br />
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The <b style="color: #38761d;">Communication Accommodation Theory</b><span style="color: orange;"> </span>explores the reasons why people use speech in order to emphasize or minimize the social differences between themselves and their listener. It evolved from the Accommodation Theory and was developed by Howard Giles, professor of linguistics and psychology at the University of California, Santa Barbara. The roots of the theory trace back to the Social Identity theory, which explores how a person’s identity is tied to his/her social identity.<br />
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Definition of Style</span></b></div>
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Sociolinguists generally define notions of language style and register primarily as “sets of linguistic features with a particular social distribution.”<br />
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What is the difference between style and variety? <br />
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Style is "the range of variation within the speech of an individual speaker." Just as there is code-switching, there would be "style-shifting" – this would be within a monolingual society. Style could mean the personal “social dialect” of a speaker based on the relatively permanent aspects of his/her identity (ethnicity, region etc.) and is therefore a very individual set of linguistic features. Register seems to be determined by less permanent aspects of identity (student to teacher, salesman to customer, etc.). Register is seen as falling within the larger idea of style.</div>
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Some sociolinguists concerned with style are Halliday, Romaine, Labov. <b></b><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhYml_I4bvZIIWLLjSZbt1o3C8a0zaJ5ZmHQTUdeTV48kjdun2fSisUJfqUWLkwA-nFGJ2Aq3PrF62Eq9bsTbis59Jd_BgDfnUCF4GjDuypfxxrCx7fiLx70YiJhTquZMkWRAPkdSgfLtPo/s1600/hal_hal.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhYml_I4bvZIIWLLjSZbt1o3C8a0zaJ5ZmHQTUdeTV48kjdun2fSisUJfqUWLkwA-nFGJ2Aq3PrF62Eq9bsTbis59Jd_BgDfnUCF4GjDuypfxxrCx7fiLx70YiJhTquZMkWRAPkdSgfLtPo/s1600/hal_hal.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr style="color: #38761d;"><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b>Michael Halliday</b></td></tr>
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<tr style="color: #38761d;"><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b>Suzanne Romaine</b></td></tr>
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<tr style="color: #38761d;"><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b>William Labov</b></td></tr>
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<b style="color: #38761d;">Labov </b>was interested in characterizing a set of linguistic forms,
and in relating them to social factors beyond the individual. "By
style” clarified Labov, <b>“we mean to include any consistent… [set of]
linguistic forms used by a speaker, qualitative or quantitative, that
can be associated with a… [set of ] topics, participants, channel, or
the broader social context." </b><br />
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Functions of Speech</span></b></div>
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<li><b>Referential function</b>: to convey information and this is done through different forms of speech, such as declarative or interrogative statements.<br /><br />Declarative statements (You will love this gift.) <br />Interrogative statements using Wh-questions (What do you think of this gift?) <br />Interrogative statements using yes/no questions (Do you like this gift?) <br />Alternative questions with answer choices (Do you like this gift or this one?)<br /><br /><br /><b> </b></li>
<li><b>Directive function</b>: giving orders or making requests by using imperative statements. An imperative statements may express a strict demand such as saying (open the gift) or it can seem less demanding by using the politeness strategy such as saying (please open my gift) or through using <i>question tags</i>.<b> <br /> </b></li>
<li><b>Expressive function</b>: to express personal feelings, thoughts, ideas and opinions, with different choice words, intonation, etc. These expressions are submissive to social factors and to the nature of the expression as negative (I'm so sad and lonely) or positive (I feel great tonight).<br /><b> </b></li>
<li><b>Phatic or Social function</b>: it is one of the most common speech acts in everyday interactions; it consists of greetings, complements, gossip, and so forth.<br /><b> </b></li>
<li><b>Metalinguistic Functio</b>n: it is used to describe parts of language such as grammar, or words that describe language itself.<br /><b> </b></li>
<li><b>Poetic Function</b>: using poetic features such as rhyming words, alliteration or <i>paronomasia </i>/ puns and antithesis (Time flies like the wind but fruit flies like bananas).<br /><b> </b></li>
<li><b>Heuristic Function</b>: Halliday identified this function of language which concerned with learning, the main concentration of researching this function of speech is to identify the spoken language of learning children.<br /><b> </b></li>
<li><b>Commissives</b>: it involves using threats and promises (I promise I'll finish my work).</li>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b><br /><br />Politeness</b></span>: it is the consideration of social factors (social distance in terms of solidarity or formality), social status, type of situation or context, intonation, etc when communicating with others.<br />
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[One may ask somebody to sit down by using different utterances:<br />
Sit down / please sit down / I want you to sit down / won't you sit down / you sit down / why don't you make yourself more comfortable?]<br />
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<b>Positive politeness</b>: a type of politeness based on solidarity between speakers and hearers who share values and attitudes, and in which formal expressions in addressing are avoided.<br />
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<b>Negative politeness</b>: a type of politeness based on formality between speakers and hearers in which formal expressions in addressing are used in order to protect hearers' face and avoid intruding on them.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgsFY11_6TMtLH9fwCDPu-p5oDjERPp7O1zSd-pBQDQF_WKdmNNPZ508ruyuK_4L8_xCZZGjff0bpo2Y_7QPw9Cm3ngtoW7bIIML3bbm3Kl0ECksaq_H-J4n5HwuFhCJyPfUDOgJ184WZ0F/s1600/polite.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgsFY11_6TMtLH9fwCDPu-p5oDjERPp7O1zSd-pBQDQF_WKdmNNPZ508ruyuK_4L8_xCZZGjff0bpo2Y_7QPw9Cm3ngtoW7bIIML3bbm3Kl0ECksaq_H-J4n5HwuFhCJyPfUDOgJ184WZ0F/s1600/polite.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b>Mrs. Obama's politically incorrect moment?</b></td></tr>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Political Correctness</b></span></div>
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It has been often said that "all politics is local." Speaking in the context of sociolinguistics, that might be amended to -- all politeness is local. Local involves both regional and personal dimensions. What's polite in Washington, DC may not be in London, England -- and polite conversation between two buddies in a locker-room is quite different than a polite talk at a lunch meeting between a male boss and a new female hire.<br />
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Politeness is not the same as polity. Polity can be defined as the shrewd or artful managing of public affairs. Polite talk connotes a mere formality -- the perfunctory 'please and thank-yous' pasted to the ends of sentences. But political correctness in speech is a rejection of the lingua-centric, "when in Rome, do as the Romans do" top-down perspective. To be politic implies that both the speaker and the addressee have the responsibility to be culturally competent.<br />
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"One man's frankness is another man's vulgarity."<br />
-- <b>Kevin Smith</b><br />
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</div>Vance Holmeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09262207340508517379noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7161575353811158514.post-52987475631818832912011-09-02T16:11:00.001-07:002011-12-10T20:09:03.253-08:0013. Culture and Categories<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhx1bYgeJgmVJ9hJgdGqjtFSty0h0L3-kupR-Q0bwjH6zD7SdDGuGmeWc76bGjPKo36ei5qE90FU6R0yWOluHT5-HMfwMKa1ZP70n9nnLvvOgujEjFvLti6bhP7gU3lvf4VqxLbnzC-StMe/s1600/zuni_shalako.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhx1bYgeJgmVJ9hJgdGqjtFSty0h0L3-kupR-Q0bwjH6zD7SdDGuGmeWc76bGjPKo36ei5qE90FU6R0yWOluHT5-HMfwMKa1ZP70n9nnLvvOgujEjFvLti6bhP7gU3lvf4VqxLbnzC-StMe/s1600/zuni_shalako.jpg" /></a></div>
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What aspects of language are defined by -- or define -- culture? </div>
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What is our understanding of how metaphors
and metaphor systems reflect underlying attitudes and expectations?</div>
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A Definition of terms<br />
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Cognition can be thought of as the act or process of obtaining knowledge, including perceiving, recognizing, reasoning, and judging. Cognition involves thinking, knowing, remembering, categorizing and problem solving. Language refers to a system of symbols that is used to communicate information and knowledge. How does thinking affect language? How does language affect thinking? How do they influence each other?<br />
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“Do people who speak different languages think about and experience the world differently?” And if so, are these differences in thinking due to the structural and lexical (language or vocabulary) differences in the languages spoken? Linguists <b>Benjamin Whorf</b> and <b>Edward Sapir</b> are the original proponents of this line of thought, which is known as the “linguistic relativity hypothesis.”<br />
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<b style="color: #351c75;">Verbal Hygiene</b><br />
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It is a term, used by <b>Deborah Cameron </b>to describe how people respond to the “urge to meddle in matters of language.” It covers a wide range of activities, from writing letters to editors complaining about the 'deterioration' and 'abuse' of language, through prescriptions and proscriptions about what constitutes 'proper', 'correct' and 'acceptable' usage in a range of contexts, to using language as a political weapon.<br />
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<b>Michigan's smallest public university, Lake Superior State, has released its 36th annual List of Banished Words: 14 supposedly worn-out, misused, unnecessary, and generally annoying words and expressions of 2011:</b><br />
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<li> viral</li>
<li> epic</li>
<li> fail</li>
<li> wow factor</li>
<li> a-ha moment</li>
<li> backstory</li>
<li> BFF</li>
<li> man up</li>
<li> refudiate</li>
<li> mamma grizzlies</li>
<li> the American people</li>
<li> I'm just sayin'</li>
<li> Facebook and Google as verbs</li>
<li> live life to the fullest</li>
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<span style="font-size: large;">"hopefully" -- "thankfully"</span><br />
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The traditional, undisputed senses of these words are active: "in a hopeful manner", "in a thankful manner." There is a dispute over the passive use of "hopefully" ("It is to be hoped that") and passive sense of "thankfully" ("We can be thankful that").<br />
<b><br />William Safire</b> said, "The word 'hopefully' has become the litmus test to determine whether one is a language snob or a language slob."<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh7VzbDD3suvj4hx15qhsmtXKYSzy1QjCkrOKjQgv4q59ZIMIqcOybYu2N0RKn0NsPamhZBht8_Wq-uh8Kumar2GMunShYvRN6mCz1nhnIV7COoJ2RAnNW0J3fKRP8iz2xNR65vn5WQdWV5/s1600/people_speak2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="259" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh7VzbDD3suvj4hx15qhsmtXKYSzy1QjCkrOKjQgv4q59ZIMIqcOybYu2N0RKn0NsPamhZBht8_Wq-uh8Kumar2GMunShYvRN6mCz1nhnIV7COoJ2RAnNW0J3fKRP8iz2xNR65vn5WQdWV5/s320/people_speak2.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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"Not only does the English Language borrow words from other languages, it sometimes chases them down dark alleys, hits them over the head, and goes through their pockets."<br />
-- <b>Eddy Peters</b><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Does Your Language Shape How You Think?</b></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhuIFuuwepzDoUdr-8SLdOMY8F7DX9xIo2TtDD_mxXLNOFiTZ_MZdfS76CnsfpoUpvd8xLKzGgyD_HcvBn-ks376BJaQwXpEa8IdjjwWZelsmZKteZD6Tyd1T_IZN35n4FZyMh2NVvhFrvy/s1600/hal_whorf.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhuIFuuwepzDoUdr-8SLdOMY8F7DX9xIo2TtDD_mxXLNOFiTZ_MZdfS76CnsfpoUpvd8xLKzGgyD_HcvBn-ks376BJaQwXpEa8IdjjwWZelsmZKteZD6Tyd1T_IZN35n4FZyMh2NVvhFrvy/s1600/hal_whorf.png" /></a></td></tr>
<tr style="color: red;"><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b>Benjamin Lee Whorf</b></td></tr>
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<b><a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/29/magazine/29language-t.html?pagewanted=all">New York Times Story</a></b><br />
<b>August 26, 2010</b><br />
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Seventy years ago, in 1940, a popular science magazine published a short article that set in motion one of the trendiest intellectual fads of the 20th century. At first glance, there seemed little about the article to augur its subsequent celebrity. Neither the title, “Science and Linguistics,” nor the magazine, M.I.T.’s Technology Review, was most people’s idea of glamour. And the author, a chemical engineer who worked for an insurance company and moonlighted as an anthropology lecturer at Yale University, was an unlikely candidate for international superstardom. And yet Benjamin Lee Whorf let loose an alluring idea about language’s power over the mind, and his stirring prose seduced a whole generation into believing that our mother tongue restricts what we are able to think.</div>
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In particular, Whorf announced, Native American languages impose on their speakers a picture of reality that is totally different from ours, so their speakers would simply not be able to understand some of our most basic concepts, like the flow of time or the distinction between objects (like “stone”) and actions (like “fall”).</div>
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From NYT<br />
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/29/magazine/29language-t.html?pagewanted=all<br />
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<tr style="color: #b45f06;"><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b>Edward Sapir</b></td></tr>
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In his analysis of Native American languages, <b>Benjamin Lee Whorf</b> noticed that the particular words selected to describe or label objects often influenced people's perceptions and behavior.<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Linguistic Determinism</b></span></div>
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The medium is the message, Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (linguistic determinism) is that people from different cultures think differently because of differences in their languages. <br />
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<ul>
<li><b>Testing Sapir-Whorf hypothesis</b>: if Whorf is right then it is difficult to identify colours which your language does not have a name for. But although people form the Dani tribe in New Guinea, use only two colour terms (corresponding to black and white or dark and light), it was found that they could recognize and distinguish between subtle shades of colours that their language had no names for (pale blue vs. turquoise).</li>
<li><b>Different discourse patterns </b>can reflect different patterns of thinking or socio-cultural relationships, for example: a similar news report can be represented differently from one newspaper to another, in form and content.</li>
</ul>
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<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhtOJcf2EkmrBaBxckJ1t7rzpD7A2g_MtWa9W_zDaqivM385ALWcuXIBOqHBANBaAJwEZALY-UpTP6u2AJis5N0IXVPQLyAFO_PGWYK8tK6e3AUa1C2cJLcD-eLCrblebDAZJdDwhMRpXRo/s1600/hal_lakoff.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhtOJcf2EkmrBaBxckJ1t7rzpD7A2g_MtWa9W_zDaqivM385ALWcuXIBOqHBANBaAJwEZALY-UpTP6u2AJis5N0IXVPQLyAFO_PGWYK8tK6e3AUa1C2cJLcD-eLCrblebDAZJdDwhMRpXRo/s1600/hal_lakoff.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr style="color: #b45f06;"><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b>George Lakoff</b></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<br />
Definitions: What are <b>tag questions</b> for <b>Lakoff </b>and what are their functions?<br />
<br />
According to Lakoff, tag questions are syntactic devices that are used more by men to express uncertainty (she's very nice, isn't she) and they are used more by women to express positive politeness (you will study for the exam, won't you?). Involves <b>Euphemism </b>and <b>Dysphemism</b>.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="color: #351c75;">"Euphemisms are unpleasant truths wearing diplomatic cologne."</span><br />
-- <b>Quentin Crisp</b><br />
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<br />
<br />
<hr color="#b45f06" width="95%" />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Linguistics and Economics Connection Investigated</span><br />
<br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/2011/nov/15/economics-and-linguistics-merge-study/"><b>From an article by Dan Stein November 15, 2011 </b></a><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
According to a Yale professor’s recent study, high savings rates in
certain countries may be due to how citizens speak in the future tense.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
In a working paper published in August, Keith Chen, an associate
professor of economics at the Yale School of Management, argued that
speakers of languages with a “weak,” or less distinguished, future tense
are more likely to save money for the future. According to the paper,
speakers of these languages feel more connected to their future selves
because of the linguistic difference, which makes them 30 percent more
likely to have saved money in a given year. However, three linguistics
professors interviewed said they remain deeply skeptical about the
implications of Chen’s research for their field.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Chen said he first realized language and saving might be connected
early in his career: His parents, “invariant savers” who grew up in
poverty, would remind him to save more because he “wasn’t speaking
Chinese,” he said.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>“Different languages make you pay attention to different things,” </b>Chen said.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
For example, Chen said, in English one says “I will be meeting with a
student tomorrow,” but the equivalent phrase in Mandarin Chinese is “I
meet with student tomorrow.” He explained that languages such as
English use a “strong,” clearly differentiated and obligatory future
tense, which creates a “bigger wedge between you and ‘future you’.” By
contrast, languages with a weak and non-obligatory future tense, such as
Chinese, make less of a distinction between the present and the future,
he said.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
These differences then force the speaker to subconsciously consider
his or her relationship to the future differently, Chen said.</div>
<br />
<br />
<hr color="#b45f06" width="95%" />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<a href="http://www.scpr.org/programs/patt-morrison/2011/11/04/21271/ey-watcha-the-linguistics-of-the-east-la-accent-an"><span style="font-size: large;">The linguistics of the East LA accent </span></a></div>
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<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://articles.latimes.com/2011/oct/24/local/la-me-eastla-accent-20111025">In a recent article for the Los Angeles Times</a>,
reporter Hector Becerra details the East L.A. accent, a Chicano English
he said he, as a Mexican-American, took for granted until a phone
conversation sparked his interest.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
"A couple years ago I got a call from someone who had an
Irish-sounding last name," Becerra told KPCC's Patt Morrison on Friday.
"He had what I thought was a Mexican-American accent, a kind of
multi-generational one — not an immigrant one, and it turns out he’s
grown up in Boyle Heights."</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
What caught his attention was the accent's spread across races and
cultures; an expression of identity in neighborhoods where the way of
speech reigns, including Boyle Heights, East L.A., Lincoln Heights, El
Sereno and City Terrace.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
"If I grew up in Boston, I would probably have a Boston accent, even
though there's no genetic reason for why I should. If you grew up around
the culture, that environment, it's sort of natural that you’re going
to pick up the way people speak around you," he said.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
According to the Times, linguists propose that Chicano English stems
from an indigenous group in Mexico, Nahuatl. Higher vowel sounds mark
the ends of words and "ch" sounds are replaced with "sh." L.A. becomes
"all-ay," and the word "barely" often substitutes for "just," for
example: "I barely got out of the shower."</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Becerra interviewed Japanese-American and German-English residents
who picked up the accent, and found that they use it with pride. Carmen
Fought, linguistics professor at Pitzer College, said the East L.A.
accent has avoided homogenizing with other Los Angeles communities
because it's a form of expression.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
"Dialects and ways of speaking are about our identity. They're joy,
they're the way we express our connection to the people in our
community," she said.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
With the accent comes a stereotype; Becerra said many associate the
East L.A. accent with Hispanic gang members, cholos. But he went on to
say that they often speak in an exaggerated style.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
"Some people that speak with an accent, they use a lot of slang," he
said. "But not everybody does that; for some people it's just sort of a
sound system that sounds vaguely Mexican in its rhythms and tones, even
though the speaker might not actually speak Spanish."</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Becerra said that the accent is most prevalent in East L.A. because
the region is a "Mecca of Mexican Culture," but similar versions can be
detected in San Fernando Valley and other parts of the Southwest.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<div style="background-color: black; color: white; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-size: x-small;">You Are What You Speak</span></b></div>
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<div style="text-align: left;">
<b style="color: red;"><br /><br />Pragmatics</b><span style="color: red;"> </span>is a branch of linguistics concerned with the use of language in social contexts and the ways in which people produce and comprehend meanings through language.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b style="color: red;">Metalinguistic Awareness</b> has been defined as "the ability to objectify language and dissect it as an arbitrary linguistic code independent of meaning"<br />
<br />
Langston Hughes, Maya Angelou, Ralph Ellison and other African-American writers have noted that negative symbolism and connotations surrounding the word "black" outnumber positive ones. They have argued that the good vs. evil dualism associated with white and black frames racist ideation and reinforces it through prejudiced colloquialisms. They argued that the good vs. bad dualism associated with white and black unconsciously frame prejudiced colloquialisms. In the 1970s the term black replaced Negro in the United States<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><b></b></span></div>Vance Holmeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09262207340508517379noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7161575353811158514.post-300544418435076462011-09-02T16:08:00.001-07:002011-12-10T20:16:59.041-08:0014. Attitudes<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<div style="color: #b45f06;">
<b>Attitudes to Language</b></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br />
Language attitudes -- positive or negative -- towards a language or a variety can have great impact on language and education.<br />
<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
What do we know or care about language knowledge and learning? </div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
What are some
different approaches to language learning?</div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
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<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjGsZYU57_bdRmTao0a5zauyWyOtaENEMbm91oC_0b87t-VDip4OSguJUCqs5sruk-s5mR904Wj82mZW-rpQeTuybr4yuD5cxUfk_7bovAa0L_1beAUeed3lO98k29yyUXWe2-BZHMi0Xmk/s1600/2334.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjGsZYU57_bdRmTao0a5zauyWyOtaENEMbm91oC_0b87t-VDip4OSguJUCqs5sruk-s5mR904Wj82mZW-rpQeTuybr4yuD5cxUfk_7bovAa0L_1beAUeed3lO98k29yyUXWe2-BZHMi0Xmk/s1600/2334.jpg" /></a></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: large;"><b><br /><br /><br /><span style="color: #b45f06;">Overt Prestige and Covert Prestige </span></b></span><br />
<div style="color: #0b5394; text-align: center;">
<b>from a sociolinguistic perspective</b></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br />
The meaning of overt prestige is reasonably self-evident; it is associated with the standard variety in a community -- 'the best way of speaking in a community'. In contrast the term covert prestige refers to positive attitudes towards vernacular or non-standard speech varieties.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b><br /><span style="color: #0b5394; font-size: large;">Methods of collecting attitude data</span></b><br />
<b><span style="color: #0b5394; font-size: large;"><br /></span></b></div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><b>Direct observation<br /> </b></li>
<li><b>Direct questions<br /> </b></li>
<li><b>Indirect measures</b></li>
</ul>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Discourse</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br />
The term discourse is generally used to refer to stretches of spoken or written language which extend beyond an utterance or a sentence. For philosophers, discourse is a broader term. It is regarded as a means of structuring knowledge and social practice, and language is just one symbolic form of discourse.</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
Discourse as viewed by pragmatics<br />
<br />
Pragmatics are concerned with the analysis of meaning in interaction, context is crucial in interpreting what is meant, and pragmatics extends the analysis of meaning beyond grammar and word meaning to the relationship between the participants and the background knowledge they bring to a situation, which is analyzed in terms of conversation maxims and politeness.<br />
<b><br />Conversation Maxims</b></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhfCtIvsYpeqd1eE0bRrlrUSMdzAZa9kK31ox1GcdF9Z9gdpyrfBXem5Ql9mxrvUpzvhyphenhyphen9-dEPu9cwWIoiLJ_waM7zlwb5eObkY1TGLhPHcb7JH0koL622Fpa2FfHy1vGcpAOhmUlGKRwvc/s1600/298_04.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhfCtIvsYpeqd1eE0bRrlrUSMdzAZa9kK31ox1GcdF9Z9gdpyrfBXem5Ql9mxrvUpzvhyphenhyphen9-dEPu9cwWIoiLJ_waM7zlwb5eObkY1TGLhPHcb7JH0koL622Fpa2FfHy1vGcpAOhmUlGKRwvc/s1600/298_04.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b>Paul Grice</b></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Paul Grice</b> formulated four maxims of cooperative talk:<br /><br />
</div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>Quantity: say as much as but no more than necessary<br /> </li>
<li>Quality: do not say what you believe to be false, or that for which you lack evidence<br /> </li>
<li>Relation: be relevant</li>
<br />
<li>Manner: be clear, unambiguous, brief and orderly</li>
</ol>
<div style="text-align: left;">
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<div style="text-align: left;">
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<div style="color: #b45f06; text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Educational Linguistics</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /><span style="font-size: small;">focuses on language learning and teaching, and the role of language in learning and teaching. </span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
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<div style="text-align: left;">
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<div style="color: #0b5394; text-align: left;">
<b>Vernacular Forms</b></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
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<div style="text-align: left;">
Holmes: "For many minority ethnic group members, ethnic identity is fundamental and colors or infuses everything they say and do, think and believe. From this perspective advocating <i>bidialectalism </i>is perhaps like asking a woman to pretend to be a man for the duration of each working day, or vice-versa."</div>
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<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<div style="text-align: left;">
"Language is political. That's why you and me, my Brother and Sister, that's why we supposed to choke our natural self into the weird, lying, barbarous, unreal, white speech and writing habits that the schools lay down like holy law. Because, in other words, the powerful don't play; they mean to keep that power, and those who are the powerless (you and me) better shape up --mimic/ape/suck --in the very image of the powerful, or the powerful will destroy you --you and our children." -- <b>June Jordan</b></div>
</blockquote>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br />
<br />
<b>Vernacular Dialects and Educational Disadvantage</b></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
"Why do working-class children fail in schools more than middle-class children from a sociolinguistic perspective?"</div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>The criteria for success are middle-class criteria, including middle-class language and ways of interaction;<br />
</li>
<li>Many of the children, recognizing that schools are essentially
middle-class institutions, deliberately and understandably rebel against
all that they represent.</li>
</ul>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<b>Linguistic Deficit Issues</b></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
Sociolinguists study the effect of contextual factors on speech.</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
Holmes: "Sociolinguists use research about the relationships between language and its users -- and language and its uses -- in order to identify misconceptions which can disadvantage some social and ethnic groups in school."</div>
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<br /></div>Vance Holmeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09262207340508517379noreply@blogger.com0